Fallacious Reasoning: Common Errors of Logic and Language
Type A: Logic Errors
I. Circular Reasoning: attempting to prove a statement by simply repeating it in different words; an argument proving a conclusion that is already assumed to be true AKA: Begging the Question Circular: Teens should avoid fad diets because it is important for adolescents to stay away from quick weight-loss plans. Logical: Teens should avoid fad diets because their bodies are still growing and need the nutrients that fad diets lack. Awareness: Read and listen carefully. Look and listen for clever double-speak or word manipulation. Always be sure that you are using reasons when attempting to justify a position. Practice: Generate five common examples of Circular Reasoning & create correct counter-examples of each; Exs. 3-5 p. 499, Language Network; Old Book: p. 265, Writing Activity A, 1-10; Supplemental Worksheet (handout) |
II. Either/Or Fallacy: an argument which states there are only two choices when there are actually many. AKA: False Dilemma or Black and White Fallacy Either/Or: Either we raise taxes or we close the park. Logical: In addition to raising taxes, there are many ways to finance the park. OR If we don't raise taxes, several city programs could be in jeopardy. Awareness: Anytime you see or feel constrained to only two alternatives. Practice: Exs. 1-2 p. 499, Language Network; Old Book: p. 265, Writing Activity A, 1-10; Supplemental Worksheet (handout) |
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III. Post Hoc Reasoning: falsely concluding that because one event followed another, the first event caused the second. AKA: False Cause, Cause-and-Effect Fallacy Enrichment: Post Hoc Reasoning comes from the Latin phrase: post hoc ergo propter hoc, meaning after this, therefore because of this Cause-and-Effect: The present committee has always planned picnics on rainy days; we think a new committee should be formed. Logical: Our social committee has the worst luck: it always rains on their planned picnics. Awareness: Look for actual connections between the effect and its cause - do not let timing of the events influence your conclusions as to whether one thing causes another. Practice: Old Book: p. 265, Writing Activity A, 1-10; Sup Wkst (hout) |
N.B. the word because: Because is an relevant word here since it is often used in cause-effect relationships. However, many people misuse the word because in common everyday practice by using it with the phrase the reason is. Let's look at an example: Error: I did not come to school yesterday. The reason is because I was sick. Correct: I did not come to school yesterday because I was sick. OR I did not come to school yesterday. The reason was (that) I was sick. The error here has to do with the relationship of the word reason (which means cause in this context) and the word because. The correct example holds the key to avoiding this error. In it, we see that the cause (the reason) the speaker did not come to school was that she was sick. This makes sense. However, in the erroneous example, the speaker states the reason - which we know from the correct example is her illness - is because - or has it's own reason or cause of its own. It's as if there is another layer of causes we need to get to. She then provides that additional reason by saying that she was sick. In other words, the erroneous example actually says: I did not come to school yesterday because I was sick which was caused by being sick. Or, a bit more literally & comically, she should explain the cause of her illness by explaining viruses, etc. |
IV. Overgeneralization: making an argument too broad to be proven or true AKA: Stereotyping Overgeneralization: Everyone likes hockey. Logical: Many sports fans like hockey. Awareness: Look for and avoid words like all, every, none, never. Practice: Old Book: p. 265, Writing Activity A, 1-10; Supplemental Worksheet (handout) |
V. False Analogy: comparing two things that do not have essential features in common or are compared in unfair or exaggerated ways False Analogy: Having a closed campus is like keeping the students in jail. Logical: The traffic from an open lunch would be like our city's morning rush hour. Awareness: Identify the essential features and evaluate for commonality and logic. Practice: Create five valid analogies; Exs. 1-5. p. 494, Language Network |
VI. Straw Man Fallacy: oversimplifying an opponent's position for the purposes of making the choice between two parties obvious AKA: creating a false image Straw Man: My opponent believes that capital punishment is the only way to deal with violent crime. He has always been reactionary and punitive. But I have a better idea: let's look at the causes of violence and anti-social behavior and deal with them first. Logical: Of course, this speaker's opponent's position is very likely much more complex than is stated here and may even include ideas about the causes of violence and anti-social behavior. As a listener, you must thoroughly examine both sides and not be swayed by oversimplification. Awareness: Look for Overgeneralizations & Either/Or errors; be sensitive to the true complexities of an issue; beware Ad Hominem attacks; do not be lazy. |
VII. Shifting the Burden of Proof: attempting to prove a point by asserting that the opponent must prove your position wrong or else your position is right Burden of Proof Fallacy: Unless you can prove that my argument stating that computer technology was taken from reverse-engineered alien technology is wrong, then you'll have to accept that it was. Logical: You simply cannot do this, especially if you have created the conclusion to begin with. Prove your own points. Awareness: Always have reasons or force the debater to have his own reasons why a position is correct. |
VIII. Loaded Questions: questions that limit someone to
a simple yes or no answer & force the respondent into a predetermined
answer.
AKA: Complex Claims Loaded Question: Salesman: Surely you must appreciate the incredible offer I have made to you. Logical Response: As you can see, if you say you do appreciate it, then the salesman has his hooks into you based on the fact that you admit he is making an incredible offer. Indeed, you yourself may even begin to feel you are somehow stupid if you don't take the offer. On the other hand, if you say you don't appreciate it, then you seem either too dumb to understand the offer or, even worse, you may be subjected to yet another pitch. You best defense it to give a complete answer to his oversimplified question: Yes, I see the pros of your offer; however, my needs and circumstances are a bit more complex right now. Thank you for your time. Goodbye. Awareness: Be aware of any attempt to steer your answers or limit you to yes/no or two alternative answers. Practice: Exercise 1-5, bottom of page 501 in language network book. Generate five common Loaded Questions you might encounter in everyday life. Create logical responses to all of them. |
Type B: Language Errors (misusing emotional appeals)
I. Ad Hominem Fallacy:
attacks against the person making an argument rather than the argument
itself
AKA: Name-Calling Enrichment: from the Latin argumentum ad hominem, meaning argument against the person Ad Hominem: Hiren can't possibly understand democracy; he's not even an American. Logical: Even though it has its problems, democracy is indeed an excellent form of government. Awareness: Any time you refer to the person arguing against you or he refers to you instead of the issues, you are falling victim to this fallacy. Practice: Exs. 1-5 p. 501, Language Network; Old Book: p. 265, Writing Activity A, 1-10; Supplemental Worksheet (handout) |
II. Loaded Language:
unfairly taking advantage of connotative meanings |
Denotative: the
dictionary or literal definition of a word or phrase Connotative: the emotional meaning of the word or phrase |
AKA: Often used in context of unfair emotional appeals. Loaded: Senator Wilson is an honest family man who has led the crusade to protect our freedom. Logical: Senator Wilson has an impeccable record and has sponsored many bills which have served to protect our freedoms. Awareness: This one is tricky because good persuasion is always marked by the intelligent use of words and language. Indeed, the whole point to persuasion is to convince the audience using logic, ethics, AND emotion. Nevertheless, we must be careful that our intelligent use of emotional language isn't perverted into a way to cloud the facts, hide poor reasoning, exploit prejudices, fears, vanities, hates, loyalties, and the like. It's a fine line and one that is probably best learned through experience and practice. Just be cognizant of how you are being manipulated or how you might be unfairly manipulating your audience. Practice: Create five intentionally inflammatory statements; Exs. 1-5 p. 501, Language Network; Old Book: p. 265, Writing Activity A, 1-10; Supplemental Worksheet (handout) |
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III. Bandwagon Appeal:
arguing that someone should believe or do something just because everyone
else is doing it
AKA: Appeal to Common Belief or Opinion, Appeal to Common Practice Bandwagon: Millions of people prefer Sudsy detergent. Logical: Sudsy detergent gets white clothes 30% cleaner that any other detergent. Awareness: In the example given, the problem is obvious in that most of us probably don't care what millions of people think: we probably buy our detergent because we think it does the best job for us. However, many students will do surveys to try to support their positions in a debate, not realizing that popular opinion, while interesting, is rarely a valid support for an argument (unless, of course, the issue being argued is a matter of popular opinion!). Just be careful that you aren't using popular belief in place of true support and beware those who would try to persuade you by telling you what everybody else is doing. Practice: Identify five instances of Bandwagon Appeal from advertising; Exs. 1-5 p. 501, Language Network; Old Book: p. 265, Writing Activity A, 1-10; Supplemental Worksheet (handout) |
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IV. Snob Appeal:
arguing that someone should believe or do something just because an elite
group does
Snob: You should own a 1967 Mustang because all true car-lovers love them. Logical: The 1967 Mustang is a powerful and reliable car with an ever-increasing residual value. Awareness: This one is so common and often abused, you should have no problem identifying and avoiding it. Just watch your vanity, have some self-esteem, and don't place yourself above others. Practice: List five instances of Snob Appeal you have witnessed in your life; Exs. 1-5 p. 501, Language Network; Old Book: p. 265, Writing Activity A, 1-10; Supplemental Worksheet (handout) |
To Learn More: Click here and scroll down the page to Misdirected Appeals and Emotional Appeals to learn much more about unfair language and emotional appeals. |
Background Resources
Mesher, David. "Fallacies and Non-Rational Persuasion." Mission: Critical. 1999. http://www.sjsu.edu/depts/itl/graphics/main.html